In-text citations using the SLU Harvard style

In active referencing, you write out the author's name in the main text and place the year of publication in parentheses. This is commonly referred to as active referencing because the author plays an active role in the text.

Example — active reference:

• The fiction writer Stephen King (2000) argues that to become a writer you must both read and write a lot.

In passive referencing, you include the author and the year of publication within parentheses. This is usually referred to as passive referencing because the author takes on a passive role in the text.

Example — passive reference:

• The structure of the European Union is often described in the shape of three pillars (Tallberg 2004).

If you're referencing a source with two authors, both names should be included in the citation, and an ampersand (&) is used between the names when they are enclosed in parentheses. In an active reference, "and" is used instead of the ampersand symbol.

Examples:

• Andersson and Svensson (2019) found that birds in the area...
• ... has shown that the two phenomenon correlate (Smith & Johnsson 2010)

If the source you are referring to has three or more authors, do not list all the names but use the abbreviation "et al." after the name of the first author instead. It is an abbreviation for the Latin expression "et alia" meaning "with others".

Examples:

To cite a paper written by Hunter, Smith and Johnsson:   

• According to Hunter et al. (2011)... 
• ... problem-based approach was successful (Hunter et al. 2011).

If you use multiple sources by the same author that were published in the same year, you differentiate them by adding a, b, c after the year. This applies even if, for example, an organization or authority is listed as the author. In the reference list, the order of the sources is determined by the titles; the title that comes first alphabetically is assigned the letter a.

Example:

• Nilsson and Carlsson (1998a) ... in Nilsson and Carlsson (1998b) on the contrary ...

If you want to cite multiple sources with similar information, e.g. for supporting the same idea, you separate the references with semicolon and list them chronologically.

Example:

• Several studies have shown that ... (Andersson 2014; Svensson 2016).

Ibid.

An abbreviation of the Latin term "ibidem," meaning "in the same place." It can be used when you cite or refer to the same source multiple times within a paragraph and want to avoid repetition. No other reference should come in between when using "ibid." The usage of "ibid." varies between different academic disciplines, with some not using it at all. Occasionally, the abbreviation "a.a." is used in a similar way.

Example:

• Murphy et al (2023) suggests fantastic things. Furthermore, the authors claim that the Eurasian Curlew avoids humans (ibid.).

If you want to refer to a source that lacks a publication year, use the abbreviation "n.d." (no date). This applies both in the running text and the reference list.

Example:

• Nilsson and Carlsson (n.d.) suggests ...

If possible, always cite the original source. Occasionally this is not possible and you are obliged to use a secondary source that cites the original source. In this case both sources should be included in the citation. The original source should be cited first, followed by the work you actually have read. In the reference list you include the source you have used.

Example:

To cite Doyle (1994) that you have read in Rader (1996):  

• (Doyle 1994 see Rader 1996)

The general recommendation is to always include page numbers for quotes. You can also refer to specific pages in other types of references to make it easier for the reader to find the source.

Examples:

To cite one page: 

• (Nilsson & Carlsson 1998a:12)

To cite several consecutive pages:

• (Jansson et al. 2010:12–18) 

To cite different pages from the same source:

• Landgren (2017:12, 18)  

Quotes should be reproduced exactly as they are and the reference should include the page number in the work cited. 

Shorter quotes are included in the text within quotation marks:

Hartl (1988:5) emphasizes that "when traits are determined by many genes, usually in concert with environmental factors, they are referred to as quantitative traits".

Longer quotes should be presented as distinct paragraphs, indented from both the right and left margins:

Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited, whereas imagination embraces the entire world, stimulating progress, giving birth to evolution. It is, strictly speaking, a real factor in scientific research. (Einstein 1931:56)